English-Teaching Institutions in Pakistan

1. Introduction

English is taught as a subject and is the medium of instruction in elitist schools in Pakistan. It is commonly called a second language but it is almost a first language for a very few, highly Anglicized Pakistanis ; a second language for a somewhat larger number of affluent, highly educated people and a foreign language for all educated others. Under the rubric of English a number of courses are offered: literary courses, pedagogical grammar taught through traditional methods of memorising rules and newer methods popularised by the new emphasis on English language teaching (ELT). English is in demand by students, their parents and aspiring members of the professional middle class because it is the language of the elitist domains of power not only in Pakistan but also internationally. Indeed, according to the information presented by David Crystal, English is used in the world bureaucracy, media, commercial organizations, aviation, and research so much that it can no longer be denied that it is an international language (Crystal, 1997).

The 1986 report by U.S Aid reported that out of the people surveyed only 7 per cent opposed the teaching of English for classes 6 to 8; 30 per cent people wanted it to be taught all day in high school while the rest wanted one period a day. Even the Afghan refugees wanted to learn English (Jones et. al 1986: Table 13, pp.39-41). The Society of the Pakistani English Language Teachers (SPELT) also carried out a survey on a sample of teachers of English in 1985 in which, to the question why English should be taught, approximately 90 per cent replied that it should be taught because it is an international language. The only difference among the teachers was as to when it should begin : 73 per cent suggested from class 1 whereas 32 per cent preferred class 3 (SPELT, 1986: 23). The survey carried out by the present author in 1999-2000 of the opinions of 15 year-old students of matriculation (10^th class) also indicates that most students, except those of religious seminaries (madrassas), want to be taught English at least as a subject, if not as the only language taught at school, or as a medium of instruction¹

The demand for English is not incompatible with the fact that many people resent it. They resent it for various reasons : anti-colonial sentiment; feeling that the quest for English is servile and hence against national prestige; or because they do not know it, cannot afford to buy it and feel cheated. At the same time most people actually want to learn it because they feel sure that the system will not change and if they, or their children, do not know English they will always stay, as it were, in the ghetto. Languages other than English are, in various degrees, ghettoizing; hence the demand for it. This demand leads to a large supply of institutions for teaching the language. One way of approaching the teaching of English, then, is to focus on the institutions which use it as a medium of instruction or teach it otherwise. These are (a) English-medium schools (b) vernacular-medium schools (c) madrassas (d) English-language teaching institutions (e) institutions of higher education.

2. English-Medium Schools

All over the cities of Pakistan one can see boards advertising institutions which claim to be English medium schools or tuition ‘centres’ claiming to teach spoken English and English for passing all kinds of examinations and interviews. They are in areas ranging from the most affluent to slums and even in the rural areas. Indeed, going by numbers alone, more of them are located in middle class, lower middle class and even in working class areas than in the most expensive localities of the cities. Except by the claim made by the boards, they share little else in common. It is a far cry from the rolling green grounds of Aitchison College in Lahore to a two-room house in a slum which advertises itself as the `Oxford and Cambridge Islamic English-medium school'. Indeed, if there is anything which links such diverse establishments together it is that they cater to the persistent public demand for English education. English is still the key for a good future -- a future with human dignity if not public deference; a future with material comfort if not prosperity; a future with that modicum of security, human rights and recognition which all human beings desire. So, irrespective of what the state provides, parents are willing to part with scarce cash to buy their children such a future.

The English-medium schools are of three major types. (a) State-influenced elitist public schools (b) Private elitist schools (c) non-elitist schools. Within each category are sub-categories. Indeed, the non-elitist English-medium schools are so varied that they defy classification. Let us, however, focus only on the major categories in order to understand what type of language-teaching is carried out in them. The state-influenced institutions are the great public schools, the federal government model schools and the armed forces schools. While most of the cadet colleges and public schools are elitist institutions, some of the federal government and other schools of state institutions are not elitist. In the schools run by state institutions – the armed forces, customs, Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), telephone and telegraph, universities – the tuition fees is less for children of the employees or beneficiaries and more for other peoples’ children. The great public schools, like the famous Aitchison College in Lahore, were based upon the aristocratic model of the English public schools. Their function was to produce a loyal, Anglicized, elitist Indian who would understand, sympathise with and support the British raj in India (for details see Rahman 1996: 48-53). When Pakistan was established the elitist Mohajir children coming from English-medium schools in India were enrolled in similar institutions in Pakistan. For instance, a government report tells us that 73 students from such institutions (out of which 13 were in their O’level classes) were admitted in ‘the European Schools in Karachi’ (Zaidi, 1999: 56). In short, the parallel system of elitist schooling did not change because of the establishment of Pakistan. Indeed, as the military and the higher bureaucracy both came from this elite these schools multiplied in Pakistan as the professional middle class started expanding in the sixties. The state now invested in creating cadet colleges and public schools. The armed forces were generally involved in the cadet colleges, either as members of the Board of Governors or as administrators and instructors, so that the education, and hence the world view, of the officer corps of the future as well as other upper middle class functionaries would be under the influence of the state and, more specifically, of the military. Thus the Military College at Jhelum; the Cadet Colleges at Pitaro, Kohat, Razmak, Hasanabdal; the Army Burn Hall Colleges (Abbottabad); Public School Sargodha and Lower Topa, and the Lawrence College at Ghora Gali are all influenced, in varying degrees, by the armed forces. In addition to that the PAF has its model schools, the navy has its Bahria colleges and the army has a variety of institutions ranging from schools run by brigades to colleges run by the Fauji Foundation. In the case of the Military College (Jhelum) and Army Burn Hall, the principals are serving army officers. The Navy controls Pitaro while the Air Force runs Sargodha. In the other institutions either the Chairman of the Board of Governors is a senior serving officer or adjutants from the army are posted in the school. In some cases retired military officers are principals or administrators. In short, elitist public schools of Pakistan are as much influenced by the military as their counterparts in England were by the Anglican Church upto the 19th century. The federal government has its own model schools, some controlled or influenced by the army at the highest level, and there are elitist public schools under boards of governors such as the Boys Public School and College in Abbottabad and the Sadiq Public School in Bahawalpur. Other state-controlled bodies such as the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), the Customs Department, the Pakistan Railways, the Telephone Foundation and the Police also run English medium schools. As mentioned earlier, they provide schooling in English, though of varying quality, for an affordable fees to children of their own employees while charging much higher fees from the ordinary public. The armed forces, besides controlling many English-medium schools, also get subsidised education for their dependents from some elitist English-medium schools located in garrisons and cantonments. This means that English medium schooling can be obtained either by the elite of wealth or that of power. And this has not happened through market forces but has been brought about by the functionaries or institutions of the state itself. Indeed, the state has invested heavily in creating a parallel system of education for the elite, especially the elite which would presumably run elitist state institutions in future. This leads to the conclusion that the state does not trust its own system of education and spends public funds to create and maintain the parallel, elitist system of schooling.

This strategy of private subversion of publicly stated policies is not peculiar to Pakistan. David D. Laitin, for instance, tells us that in Kazkhistan laws for the learning and use of the Kazakh language were enacted in 1989 but there are ‘ardent nationalists who vote to promote “their” language, yet send their children to more cosmopolitan schools, where the national language is given at best symbolic support’ (Laitin, 1998: 137). This kind of strategy is observable in all situations where a more empowering language is in clash with a less empowering one. The less empowering one is ‘generally allowed to become the language of the masses while the more empowering one is the preserve of the elite. Such an unjust policy can be reversed but it is generally not. In Pakistan, for instance, it is still in place after more than half a century of the country’s existence. The non-elitist system of education, fully dependent upon the state, functions for the most part in Urdu (or in Sindhi and Pashto at places) and gets step-motherly treatment in the allocation of funds, maintenance of buildings, quality of teachers, provision of resource material and so on. Most significantly, the non-elitist stream of public education functions in the vernacular rather than in English which means, prima facie, that its products would have greater difficulty in the competition for lucrative and powerful jobs and participation in the elitist domains of power than their English-educated counterparts.

Because of this obvious injustice, the English schools have always been criticized. Ayub Khan, as General Officer Commanding in East Pakistan, was so insensitive to public criticism that he makes the following observation concerning Khwaja Nazimuddin and Nurul Amin's reluctance to establish them. Remarks Ayub:

I never understood what they were afraid of. Perhaps they thought that general reaction to the establishment of public schools would not be favourable (Khan, 1967: 25).

That it was not a question of `perhaps' was brought home to Ayub Khan when he did establish a number of such schools and resentment was clearly articulated against them.

Despite the fact that the state used the vocabulary of social justice about the schools, nobody was taken in. For instance, the Report of the Commission on National Education (1959) says:

The former Punjab Government, at the initiative of the army, established a pre-cadet college at Hasan Abdal. This provides education of five years from classes VIII to XII with a particular bias towards a career in the defence services. Nearly 33% of the seats are reserved for free students and 33% at half fees, based on a means test. The school is thus able to draw on the best talent from the poorer classes and it has been extremely successful (Edn.Com, 1959: 142).

The Commission was much impressed with Hasanabdal and recommended the establishment of more institutions of its kind. However, the students who rose in revolt against Ayub Khan's education policies, did not think that these schools were meant to serve the poor. Thus, the students of East Pakistan went on a massive strike on 17 September 1962 and in Peshawar there were student-led disturbances on 10 and 11 December 1964 (CSPW, 1966: 6). Among other things the students demanded that Pakistani languages should be used as media of instruction; that missionary schools be banned; and that all schools should be brought at par (CSPW, 1966: Appendix C). In short, what the students really wanted was to protest against the injustice of making some people proficient in a language giving access to the best jobs while neglecting most other people. The more radical ones wanted such an iniquitous system to be abolished.

The Commission on Students Problems and Welfare, appointed to investigate into these demands, flatly refused to make any changes. However, the Commission said about the Cadet Colleges:

They have not been in existence long enough to enable us to judge the quality of their end products, but we cannot help observing that we are unable to appreciate the principle upon which such a discrimination is sought to be made by the government, particularly in view of the constitutional assurance given in paragraph 15 under Right No. VI to the effect that "all citizens are equal before law" (CSPW, 1966: 18).

But such pieties had no effect on the state which kept on investing in such elitist institutions in the name of defence, modernization and efficiency. Even General Zia ul Haq, dictator though he might be, had to reverse his policy which would have abolished the elitist English schools - his government’s educational policy of 1979 proposing to abolish the English-medium schools had to be abandoned in 1987. Even now, the cost of building and running an English school (a cadet college, armed forces school or federal model school), is far more than a vernacular-medium state school. The present costs of the establishment of cadet colleges are between 8 to 11 million rupees whereas the cost of setting up 4 new primary schools in a developed sector of Islamabad is reported to be merely Rs. 2,656,000 in the same year (Expenditure, 1999, Vol. 2: 1676). Islamabad is more expensive than other cities and even the Urdu medium schools of the federal government are much better than the same type of schools in the rural areas. In short, the state spends much more of the taxpayer’s money on the schooling of the elite through English than of the masses through the vernaculars.

3. Private Elitist Schools

In the sixties when the students protested against Ayub Khan's policies the private elitist schools were generally run by the missionaries. They were the famous convents of the Pakistani cities -- Saint Mary's (Rawalpindi); Presentation Convent (Murree); Burn Hall (Abbottabad) -- which created an atmosphere where students not only studied English in the classroom but spoke it informally to each other. These students were perceived by vernacular-educated people as being glib-tongued, ultra modern, snobbish, European-attired boys and forward young misses. They were at once the envy and despair of their vernacular educated counterparts. No wonder, the vernacular-educated students, in their protest against the superior airs of their English school counterparts, called them `snobs'. The Commission on Students Welfare tried to refute the angry students observing that:

We have no evidence that these schools have really produced any such snobs as suggested by the students, nor have we any evidence that their students usually secure better positions in public examinations. We are not, therefore, in a position to say that the continuance of these schools is harmful to the community and that as such, they should be stopped (CSPW, 1966: 18).

In fact, there is a lot of evidence that the products of such schools came from richer and more powerful families than their vernacular-educated counterparts and did consider themselves superior to them even without reference to their privileged schooling. Schooling, however, gave them an obvious marker of elitist identity : the spontaneous and natural use of Pakistani English in an accent nearer to the British pronunciation than that of other Pakistanis. Moreover, what increased their self-esteem was the fact that they did, indeed, fare better in the Inter Services Selection Board (ISSB); the armed forces academies; the superior civil services examinations and other elitist jobs in the sixties. Moreover, they felt that no drawing room, however posh; no club, however exclusive; no organization, however elitist -- both in Pakistan and abroad -- was closed to them. English was much more more than a language; it was a badge of status; a marker of elitist upbringing. It gave confidence and even without wishing to sound snobbish, the fluent speakers of English from the English-medium schools (especially from the elitist missionary schools who spoke even better English than their counterparts from the cadet colleges) appeared snobbish to others.

The novelist Nasir Ahmad Farooqi describes the English-school types of the fifties very well. In his novels they study English literature, or at least the Romantic poets; abbreviate their names to sound like English names; drink in clubs; read Times and the English press. ‘Young men go to Oxford, and return to work for the Government or British companies' (Farooqi, 1968:9). Their tastes are English and they think it no disgrace not to be able to write their mother tongue better than English. Indeed, if that mother tongue is Punjabi, it is often considered not respectable enough to be used on any formal occasion and, in some cases, even at home. This being so, Vittachi's perception that such people are Brown Sahibs is not very far from the truth (Vittachi, 1987). And, of course, Brown Sahibs did appear as stuck-up and snobbish to the common people. Thus the students did have a point, which the representatives of the state did not accept, when they complained that elite schools created snobs. This point was, however, accepted by a later government report -- the one which was presided over by Air Marshal Nur Khan -- when it conceded that there was `almost a caste-like distinction between those who feel at ease in expressing themselves in English and those who do not' (Edn. Pro, 1969: 14). This `ease' was a matter of style, mannerism and world view. As mentioned above the English school students talked in English, very often in slang borrowed from comic books, informally with each other. Their body-language was different from that of other students.

Before ending this section it must be pointed out that the convents are no longer seen as the most elitist of the English-medium private schools. Their place has now been taken over by private Pakistani schools. Among the most well known school chains of this kind are the Beaconhouse and the City School systems. Other such schools in Islamabad are Roots, Froebels, Arts and Science Academy, Khaldunia School and so on. These schools first came up in the seventies and eighties and are multiplying even now. Their tuition fees ranges from between Rs 1500 to over Rs 7,000 per month. They also charge a high admission fees ranging between Rs 15,000 to 50,000. Moreover there are incidental expenses, examination fees and high expenses for textbooks, stationery and uniform. These expenses exclude not only the poor but even the middle class from these schools. In short, English, always an elite preserve in South Asia, is still available to the elite of money and power. The common people find difficulty in having access to it.

Products of English schools either go abroad to join multinational corporations and the international bureaucracy or drift back home in fashionable NGOs and foreign banks. Not as many join either the civil bureaucracy or the officer corps of the armed forces as before (in the fifties and sixties). Those who do appear in the armed forces and civil service competitive examinations do better than their vernacular-educated counterparts (several reports of the Federal Public Service Commission, Islamabad, Pakistan).

4. Private Non-Elitist Schools

By far the largest number of the so-called English-medium schools are English-medium only in name. According to a 1987 survey of Rawalpindi-Islamabad there were 60 English-medium schools in Islamabad and 250 in Rawalpindi. Out of these 250 only 39 were recognised schools (Awan, 1987). In the matriculation examinations of 1999, a total of 119,673 candidates appeared from the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Lahore. Out of these, according to the records in the Boards' office’, 6,923 (5.8 per cent) were from English medium schools. Most of these candidates (6,448) were from the city itself. And, indeed, one can see such schools concentrated in the cities though they are fast appearing even in small towns now all over the country. Their fees ranges between Rs. 50 to Rs. 1500 per month which is far higher than the average state vernacular school but lower than that of the elitist private English school. In these schools a pretence is made of teaching most subjects in English but the teachers themselves are neither from English schools nor otherwise qualified to teach anything but English of a rudimentary kind through rote-learning and spoon-feeding methods. In general teachers write answers of all subjects on the board which students faithfully copy, memorise and reproduce in the examination. The Principal of the Federal Government Girls High Secondary Model School in Islamabad said that her school was only a ‘so-called’ English school. Only mathematics and science subjects were taught in English while all the other subjects were taught in Urdu. And yet, so high is the demand for English, that there are about 3000 students half of whom attend the evening classes (Naqvi, 1999). The Federal Government Model schools, cadet colleges, elitist public schools and armed forces schools do, however, teach English at a higher standard than the vernacular-medium schools. Especially the public schools, mindful of their elitist reputation, try to supplement the Textbook Board's prescribed books with other ones. From ninth class onwards, however, they adhere to the prescribed syllabi which are meant to promote Pakistani nationalism as has been mentioned earlier and will be touched upon again.

Recently, chains of non-elitist English medium schools run by organized bodies have sprung up in Pakistan. One such organization is Language Enhancement and Achievement Programme (LEAP) run by the Aga Khan Education Service in the Northern Areas and Chitral. LEAP courses ‘attempt to impart teacher-specific language and to improve teachers’ command of classroom language’. The teachers are taught English for three months in courses. The programme started in May 1996 and focussed on D.H. Howe’s Active English which is taught in English medium schools in Pakistan. In 1997 the programme was also extended to Chitral. It was expected to train 88 teachers in Chitral and 132 in the Northern Areas by the end of 1997. By the end of 1997 there were over 20 English medium schools in the Gilgit and Ghizer districts which sent their teachers to the LEAP courses. In short, LEAP is increasing competence in English at the school level in a hitherto neglected area of Pakistan (This information is from LEAP, 1997 & field research).

Another chain of schools goes by the name of Hira English medium schools. It has been created by the Hira Educational Project which is based in Lahore. The aim of this project is to educate students along both Islamic and modern lines. Thus Arabic and Islamic moral lessons are taught from class 1 but the books of science and mathematics are in English. Social studies is in Urdu and Urdu is compulsory. Since the children are from modest backgrounds, as are the teachers, interaction is generally in Urdu or the local language. The author found class 1 children mostly speaking in Kalam Kohistani in Hira School Matiltan, nine kilometers from Kalam (Swat), though the teachers spoke to them in Urdu (Nabi, 1998). Yet another chain of the Islamic schools, both Urdu and English medium, is the Siqara school system. A girls school in a lower middle class locality makes both students and teachers wear the hijab (scarf covering the head and breasts) while books are checked for their anti-Islamic content. Indeed, the principal of one of the boy’s schools of the Siqara system told the author that he had changed the pictures of women by drawing full sleeves and head scarves by his own pen in English books for use in their schools.

Indeed, it seems that the Islamic revivalist thinkers have realized how empowering English is and want to attract lower income groups through it. Thus, the eminent journalist Khalid Ahmed has a point when he says that '90 per cent' of the English-medium institutions -–not only schools, of course – are middle class ‘Islamist institutions’ (Ahmed, 1999: 5). While the figure of the percentage may be contested, there is no doubt that Islamists, especially those who are politically oriented, teach English because it enables students to enter the mainstream for positions of power in the professional middle class. This policy has also been endorsed by the Jamat-i-Islami which, while being against English medium elitist schools, does not deny either secular education or English to the students who study in its institutions. The products of these schools are, in any case, less Westernized than those of the elitist English schools -- especially schools with students from Westernized families. They are also not as fluent in English as the students of missionary schools used to be and the private elitist schools are even now². In Senior Army Burn Hall, where the author was a student between 1960-1965, students used to speak English with each other and with the teachers. Now, however, they do not. The principal. Brigadier Irshad Arshad, however, said that he still used English with the students (Arshad, 1997). This is more or less the situation in other similar schools.

The products of these schools, especially those which are run or influenced by the armed forces, are more nationalistic and militaristic than their counterparts from the private elitist English schools. This is not, however, only the consequence of the texts they read but also because their teachers, families and peers come from professional, middle-class backgrounds whose world view has been shaped by urban, state-created intellectual forces rather than foreign ones.

Even upto class 9 the students of state-influenced English schools are exposed to the Pakistani world view through texts, interaction with teachers, family and peers. From class 9 onwards all the books they study are prescribed by textbook boards. They do study subjects in English -- in some schools, however, Pakistan Studies is in Urdu -- but their books are saturated with the state-sponsored ideology. The main Urdu textbook is Muraqqa-e-Urdu which has a number of essays on Islamic personalities, historical personages from the Pakistan movement and war heroes. There is a slim section on poetry but amorous verse -- which constitutes the best ghazals -- is conspicuous by its absence. The English texts are of a similar kind. Apart from the usual essays on the historical personalities there are essays on the low intensity conflict going on between India and Pakistan in Kashmir and on the Siachin glacier, the highest battlefield in the world. This war is represented as a triumph of heroism. In short, the ideological content of English texts is not much different from Urdu ones. There may, however, be some difference in the way different teachers indoctrinate their students. The common perception of a large number of students and teachers is that the teachers of Urdu are more orthodox, supportive of middle-class, Islamic and nationalist values than teachers of English. The teachers' values and attitudes, however, generally reflect his or her class background, socialization, education and personality. Since puritanical Islam, chauvinism and militarism are supported by the middle classes, especially the educated lower middle class, teachers from this background tend to incorporate their class world view into their teaching.

5. The Curricula of Elitist English-medium Schools

The curricula of the elitist English-medium schools and the other English-medium schools is different. Let us first take the curricula of elitist schools like Beaconhouse, City School, Froebels, Grammar School (Karachi) and so on. The books on English and Urdu -- the only languages taught in these schools -- are generally not of the Pakistani Textbook Boards till class-9 and then only if the student wants to appear in the Pakistani matriculation (10^th class) examination. Some schools do not even permit their students to appear in the matriculation examination. All students take the British ordinary and advanced level school certificate examinations. Thus, most students study books originally written for Western school children. Some books have been especially reprinted for Pakistan but the changes made in them are minor -- the clothes of women are Pakistani and characters sometimes have Pakistani Muslim names -- while other books are still meant for a Western readership. These texts socialise a child into English-speaking Western culture. Children read about such classics as Lorna Doone, Little Women, Wuthering Heights and Tom Brown's Schooldays and famous figures like Florence Nightingale and so on. The world portrayed here is Western, middle class and successful. It is a secular world of nuclear families where the household chores are generally performed by women though they are sometimes seen as doing other work too. The overwhelming message of the texts is liberal and secular. Concepts like the segregation or veiling of women, ubiquitous religiosity, sectarianism or ethnicity get no support. Even the Urdu textbooks are published by private publishers and are less supportive of state ideology than those of the textbook boards. However, all Pakistani children have to study Urdu, Pakistan Studies and Islamic Studies which expose them to official state ideology in varying degrees. In the nineteen fifties and the early sixties elitist English medium school children did not study such subjects at all and may have been more Westernized than even elitist children are today.

As for the schools in the third, as it were lumpen category, they are more or less close to the vernacular medium schools than the English schools which they claim to be. This is because their fees structure and lack of facilities attract students from social backgrounds where English is hardly used. Similarly, their salary structure only attracts teachers who are not fluent---indeed not even tolerably competent --- in English at all. Curricula and examinations are in English. However, they represent only one aspect of teaching English. The other aspect is the quality of the teaching and the third, and most important, is the frequency of informal interaction with English-using people. Formal training of teachers appears to me to be far less important than their command of the language. The salaries of teachers, even of teachers of elitist schools, are not attractive enough for men from elitist English-using backgrounds. Women,----even women from affluent families----are, however, attracted by these salaries because they do not have to support the whole family only on their income. If these women are from English-using backgrounds, they speak to their students both within the class room and outside it in a natural manner in English. This provides the students the key component of interaction with English-using people---something which less Anglicized schools lack.

But even more important than the teachers are students’ playmates and members of the family as far as informal interaction is concerned. If they are from English-using backgrounds they get exposure to English not only in the classroom but also outside it. Indeed, it is this exposure which makes the crucial difference between a child from a good English-medium school and a mediocre one. The former learns to interact in English in an informal way, a point mentioned earlier in the context of the alleged snobbery of English school students. It bears repetition that the English of elitist school products is spontaneous and is pronounced differently from the English of other Pakistanis (it is described in Rahman, 1990 a: 22-27).

Thus fluency and spontaneity in the use of English is not so much a product of courses of study, techniques of teaching, and examinations. As it is a product of exposure to English in the informal domain. But this exposure cannot be provided in the school alone no matter how hard the teachers work and whichever books are prescribed. It is, in the last analysis, a byproduct of power -- of Anglicization which is the preserve of powerful and affluent people. They use English at home and their children are exposed to it even before joining school. Women from these families, educated in elitist English schools themselves, become English-using teachers and provide role models for their pupils. The whole atmosphere of school, playground and home is English-using. Even the leisure hours of the children expose them to English. They watch English cartoons; read English comic books; English childrens' fiction; English popular fiction and are constantly exposed to the CNN, BBC and TV programmes in English. Thus, children in rich and expensive English schools, but not in English schools in less affluent or less Anglicized areas, become fluent and spontaneous in English. In short, command over English is related to power and its corollaries -- Anglicization of culture, possession of wealth and so on. Thus, command over English is highest in the elitist schools followed by the state-influenced English schools, the non-elitist English schools and is least in the vernacular medium schools.

6. Characteristics of the Products of English Schools

In short, the children of English schools can be roughly divided into two kinds. The products of the elitist private schools, especially those which have a large majority of children from Westernized elitist homes; and those of the state-influenced schools. There are, of course, shades between these rough categories nor is any category definable in a precise way. Very roughly, then, the former are more Westernized than other Pakistani children. The negative consequence of this is that they are alienated from Pakistan, especially from its indigenous languages and cultures. This makes some of them look down upon most things indigenous. While such people are neither aware nor in sympathy with the values, feelings and aspirations of their countrymen they are generally believers in liberal-humanist and democratic values. Thus they are less susceptible to sectarian prejudices or the persecution of non-Muslim minorities in Pakistan. Being less exposed to nationalistic and militaristic propaganda they are also less prone than others to India-bashing and undue glorification of war and the military.

The products of the state-influenced English schools have more in common with middle class urban Pakistanis than the ones we have just described. However, like them, they too are alienated from villagers and have little understanding of the indigenous cultures of the country. They are not susceptible to sectarian prejudices but, being nationalistic and militaristic, they are quite anti-India and supportive of the military. (For detail see the results of the present author’s survey of 1500 students, Note 1).

All the products of English schools, even those which are English-medium only in name, agree in regarding themselves as an elite -- not of money and power, which they are, but that of talent and knowledge. They hold the products of the government vernacular medium schools in open contempt. Indeed, to be `Urdu medium' or `Paendoo' [rustic], is a term of derision among them. The English schools, then, produce snobs with only one redeeming feature -- some of these snobs, because of their liberal-humanist values, support human rights, democracy and freedom.

7. English in the Vernacular Medium Schools

In most of the vernacular-medium schools – Urdu and Sindhi ones – English is not a second language (that is generally Urdu) but a foreign language. It is alien and intimidating both for teachers, who are not competent in it, and students. The way English is taught leaves much to be desired. According to a report of 1982, which evaluated the teaching of English in 20 Urdu-medium high schools in Lahore district, it was found that the students could not speak or understand English nor could they read it for pleasure or write anything creative in it. They could, however, read their lessons and simple sentences in it. Even at this girls were better than boys and schools in cities were better than those in villages and small towns (Curriculum, 1982). As mentioned before, this state of affairs can be explained by the fact that one learns languages both by formal teaching and informal exposure to them. English is hardly ever used outside the class and even within it, it is explained for the most part through the vernaculars. In the nursery classes, which the author visited in some areas of Pakistan, the English book is read out by the teacher and explained word by word and line by line in the vernacular. After that a pupil stands before the class and reads out the lesson in a sing song voice. After every line he or she stops and the whole class repeats the line in chorus. Exercises are written out on the black board as are letters and paragraphs in senior classes and the pupils simply copy the specimens. The pupils, coming from humble backgrounds, do not encounter English outside the classroom. Thus, apart from the textbooks and classrooms, they are not exposed to English till they pass high school. No wonder, the students of vernacular schools do not learn English very well and generally fail in the subject --- a problem on which a number of dissertations have been written (Sarwat and Khursheed, 1994 : 130-132).

One anomaly in the vernacular-medium government schools is that there are two systems of teaching English in them. According to the older system English began to be taught from class 6. According to the new one English begins in class 1. It was in 1989 that the first Benazir Bhutto’s PPP government decided to introduce English as an additional subject from class 1. The decision was implemented in selected schools in Sindh and NWFP in 1990. The other provinces too accepted the proposal in principle. In NWFP the hurriedly prepared textbooks were used only for one year and then had to be withdrawn. Later on the National English Language Institute (NELI), established in 1987, submitted a new curriculum for English Language Teaching (ELT) for classes 1 to 12. However, as the NELI report had predicted, the experiment was not successful. Indeed, NELI itself was abolished and even now all schools do not teach English from class 1. However, in 2001, the government of General Pervez Musharraf has declared that all schools will teach English from Class-1 onwards. However, upto now English still begins from class 6 in most schools. Thus, not all children are taught English for the same number of years in the government vernacular-medium schools. It should be noted that English textbooks contain fewer ‘ideological’ items than the textbooks of other languages. The ideological items in the textbooks are prose pieces, poems, questions and conversations about Islam, important Islamic personalities, leaders of the Pakistan movement, Pakistani nationalism, war and the military of Pakistan. The overall aim of these lessons is to sacralise the nation and especially the army. Islam is used to support the state, its policy of militarization and aggressive nationalism. However, English textbooks from class 1 to class 10 had only 8 per cent ideological items whereas Urdu textbooks, which all students have to study, had about 50 percent of such items (as counted by this author in 1999). Hence English is the least ideologically-burdened language. Moreover, the ability to read it gives access to the liberal humanist and democratic world view. Thus, from the point of view of influences on one’s world view, the students of the vernacular schools are less exposed to liberal values than those of elitist English ones.

8. English in the Madrassas

As mentioned earlier, the madrassas were meant to conserve the traditional, Islamic world view. Thus English, which was associated with modernity, was resisted by them. The state, however, wanted to integrate the madrassas or, as Jamal Malik (1996) argues, ‘colonialize’ them. For this purpose it tried to teach the ulema English, Urdu and social studies. Ayub Khan's Commission on National Education emphasized Urdu and English. At the secondary level, indeed, English was recommended as the alternative medium of instruction (the other being Arabic).

If the madrassa students read the textbooks written by the textbook boards they would be exposed, like the other students, to nationalism as the major ideological motive of these books is to create a modern citizen and a Pakistani nationalist. Moreover, if the ulema learnt to read English, arguably some of them would encounter alien ideologies such as socialism, human rights, feminism and liberal democracy on their own rather than through the polemical refutations of these ideas taught to them in their final year. In short, as the ulema realised, changes in language-teaching threatened their world view. Moreover, at least some of the ulema seem to regard English as a symbol of the West i.e the most powerful non-Muslim powers upon earth. Thus a senior teacher of a madrassa said recently that ‘today Muslims are using language of non-Muslims (English) for communication’ (Amin, 1998: 61). In other words, English was symbolic of an alien, non (and anti-) Muslim identity and therefore to be suspected. Not surprisingly, then, they opposed the reforms strongly and they `were translated into action in a limited way' (Malik, 1996: 128) -- so `limited' indeed that the average madrassa student has a medieval perception of the world: that it is divided into believers and non-believers and that the latter are enemies. Even recently, in the summer of 2000, the government of General Pervez Musharraf tried to encourage the madrassas to include modern subjects in their curricula while the ulema rresisted such attempts.

During the eighties and nineties the madrassas gained more confidence and became inclined to revivalism in place of conservatism. The Islamic revolution of Iran and the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan increased the confidence of the religious lobby and they felt that they could appropriate some power-giving aspects of the modern age without compromising the essense of their commitment to an Islamic form of government and society One of the results of this appears to be the teaching of some English to students. All the avowedly revivalist parties like the Jamat-i-Islami and the Dawat-i-Islami (who wear green turbans) teach English. The International Islamic University in Islamabad, which has a revivalist agenda, not only teaches it to all students but even allows an M.A course to be run in it though an attempt is made to ‘Islamize’ this M.A by teaching Arabic and Islamic ideology in it (Khwaja, 1999 and Prospectus of MA English, International Islamic University). Even the traditional madrassas have started teaching English even now the percentage of students who study it does not exceed 3.5 percent of the total.

Some sub-sects emphasize more upon English than others. The Deobandi madrassas, in which a number of the Afghan Taliban studied and which sent their students to help the Taliban, do not teach much English whereas the All-i-Hadith ones do teach the books prescribed by the textbook Boards of the state. The Jamat-e-Islami schools teach English upto the B.A level. They mostly use the textbooks of the government schools but these are supplemented by their own English textbooks at places (Amiruddin, 1999). In some madrassas textbooks written by the Wafaq ul Madaris (a contral controlling organizations for all madrassas in Pakistan) are used. The present author saw the Wafaq-ul-Madaris’s 8^th class textbook. It had 17 lessons out of which 10 were on Islamic personalities and themes while the remaining 7 were on the continents of the world. In some madrassas arrangements are made to teach English by hiring a teacher. The teacher uses his own material and often examines the students himself (Saeedi, 1999). The Dawat-e-Islami (green turbans) also claim to teach English using the textbooks of the Textbook Boards. Some institutions which claim to teach English merely make their students memorize a few lessons. A small boy was produced before the present author at Madrassa Faizan-e-Madina (Hyderabad) as one who knew English. The boy began with the customary verses of the Quran and at one point, exactly in the same tone he had used for Arabic, he started reciting a speech in English. After the speech when the present author questioned him in English he stood quiet. It was then that the head of the madrassa said that the boy had only memorized the English speech but knew no English (Raza, 1999). In other madrassas the students could read out of English books though none of them could sustain a conversation in English.

Since the time of Zia ul Haq, madrassa degrees have been placed at par with the degrees given by universities provided a candidate passes in English as a subject. This may be an incentive to more ambitious madrassa students. However, whether it has made even the ulema who have studied English more liberal than beofre is open to dispute.

9. Other English Language Teaching Institutions

Vernacular medium schools used the grammar translation method in teaching English while the English medium schools emphasized less on grammar exercises and had no translation at all. At the higher level the courses were literary with no emphasis on the use of language, no awareness of linguistics and its relevance to English and no reference to post-colonial or contemporary literature in English. It is somewhat surprising to note that a report of 1902-07 tells us that there was a feeling that ‘English literature need not bulk so largely as a subject of study’ (Edn. I, 1907: 27), but the change came so slowly that even now the courses are predominantly literary and old fashioned. However, a change towards emphasizing language did take place. The British Council took the initiative in bringing about the change. Ronald Muckin was Education Officer of the Council from 1958 to 1962. He prepared new books emphasizing what was called the ‘structural direct’ method. This was introduced in class 9 and 10 in 1976 (Curriculum 1982). After that the emphasis on language led to the birth of the discipline which came to be called English Language Teaching (ELT) or the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) or English as a Second Language (ESL). The Allama Iqbal Open University and the University Grants Commission took a lead in giving in-service training to teachers of English leading to a diploma in TEFL. The UGC held two international conferences in 1983 and 1984 which gave much boost to English language studies. TEFL was taught to the batch of 1985. Since then a number of teachers of English have been trained, mostly in Pakistan but some abroad. The British Council and Overseas Development Association have been giving scholarships to train teachers and ELT has entered the vocabulary, if not the classroom practice, of many teachers of English.

A private body called the Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (SPELT) was established by some teachers from Karachi with the special initiative of Zakia Sarwar, a professor of English at a Government College in Karachi, in May 1984 at Islamabad. The objectives of the society were to provide a forum for discussion, analysis and evaluation of courses, and offering alternative suggestions after a realistic appraisal of the teaching and learning situation in different areas of Pakistan (SPELT Brochure 1985). SPELT organised workshops and courses for the teachers of English and its annual conferences are known events in the field of English teaching. Among other things SPELT reviewed the English courses from class 6 till the B.A level in 1985. The conclusions of this survey were that the school textbooks were subject-centred rather than pupil-centred and tested memory not understanding. The textbooks at the higher secondary level (class 11 and 12) had not been revised for nearly twenty years and students merely memorised the usual questions set upon them. The B.A textbooks too encouraged rote learning with no development of the skills of speaking and analysis (SPELT, 1987).

The SPELT also carried out another text of English in some schools and colleges. It was found that the students of 12^th class (intermediate) did better than those of B.A and M.A in the university. All students were from the humanities group but the university students were not those who were studying English at the M.A level. Even so, it is surprising that in B.A the percentage of scoring should go down. The explanation offered in the report is that ‘at B.A level the students lack the motivation to learn English as the marks of the compulsory English are not added to the division’ (SPELT, 1986: 24).

Since the 1990s both the American Centre and the British Council have started withdrawing from the ELT field in Pakistan. The last English Language Officer of the American Centre was Lisa Washburn and when she left in 1995 nobody was posted in her place. The Pakistan American Cultural Centre (PACC) does, however, teach English to students in Karachi. Apart from helping in the teaching English in Pakistan, the United States as well as Britain finance the training of Pakistanis in English studies in their countries. In Pakistan the U.S Educational Foundation administers the Fulbright grants. Their two reports Thirty Years of Fulbright (1982) and Fulbright in Pakistan (1994) give us an idea as to how many Pakistanis have benefited from Fulbright grants. According to the first 1,180 Pakistanis and 400 Americans had ‘participated in one or another of the half-dozen programs which it has been the Foundation’s pleasure to supervise’ (Introduction). The second lists 213 Pakistani alumni out of whom 120 held Fulbrights between 1982–1994; 116 Americans are also listed. The first book tells us that the number of grantees associated with language or literary studies are as follows: 38 (English and American literature); 27 (English); 8 (English language) and 7 (linguistics). Out of these 53 are Pakistanis and 36 Americans. The grantees involved in pursuing languages other than English (Arabic & Urdu mostly) are 9. This brings up the total to 73 for English in some way or the other.

The British Council has been promoting English for the last fifty years in Pakistan. Since the 1970s, according to Chris Nelson, English language officer of the British Council in Islamabad in 1997, the emphasis started shifting from literature to language. Students used to be sent to England to get higher degrees but this is not being done any more. Students are, however, being taught at Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad and Peshawar (Nelson, 1997). More than 17,000 students have benefitted from the British Council’s courses. As the tuition fees is Rs 4000 for a course of 30 hours of 7-5 weeks of part time study, one can conclude that the desire to learn English is really high among Pakistani students.

The United States and Britain both promote English but, according to a British Council officer, the teaching of the British Council is of a higher standard than that of the U.S centres (Nelson, 1997). Be that as it may, the fact is that although Britain still dominates the universities (through British literature and faculty qualified in Britain) and the ELT industry (again because of faculty qualified in Britain) Pakistanis are now more exposed to American English through the CNN than ever before.

10. English in the Institutions of Higher Education

Most traditional universities offer English at the masters level. Universities of Sindh also have BA (Honours) courses in English but other Pakistani universities merely examine students for the B.A degree while the actual teaching is carried on in the colleges. Some colleges too offer the M.A degree but their courses are determined by the university with which they are affiliated. The M.A in English in Pakistan used to mean a two-year general course in the canonical classics of British English literature from Chaucer till T.S Eliot till the 1980s. After that linguistics, ELT and American literature have been added to the courses, mostly as options, in most universities. In 1987 the University of Azad Kashmir in Muzaffarabad, started offering an MA in Linguistics and English Language Teaching. This was the first time that literary courses were eliminated and linguistics came to dominate the syllabus. This course, however, was modified later.

At present, however, linguistics, ELT and American literature are options in the courses of the Punjab, Karachi and Bahauddin Zakariya universities. Karachi University, however, is the only one which offers a one-year MA in linguistics to those who have qualified in its literary MA of the usual two years. Post-colonial literatures in English are not taught at the undergraduate level anywhere. However, at the Punjab University it was introduced by Professor Shaista Sirajuddin in 1998 in the M.Phil course and is still being taught (Sirajuddin, 1999). Professor Rafat Karim of the University of Karachi also said that it might be offered as an option later (Karim, 1999). There are people who have worked on Pakistani literature in English in some universities but no university has so far offered it as a course in the M.A. On the whole, the M.A in English is conservative and out of touch with contemporary trends and developments. The only change from the 1960s is that there is more awareness of linguistics and ELT than before.

Another change is that there are several institutions, both private and governmental, for the teaching of functional, especially spoken, English. Among the best known such institutions are those run by the British Council, the Pakistan American Cultural Centre, the Aga Khan University and the National University of Modern Languages (NUML) at Islamabad. The armed forces academies also teach spoken English by making it mandatory for the trainees to speak English and by making them deliver speeches, lectures and talks in English. The NUML and a number of private institutions also follow the same approach. According to several administrators of private institutions, especially faculty members at Aga Khan University (Karachi), exercises in public speaking are held. Tests include speaking, role playing and interview skills. However, as in the case of the English medium private schools, these institutions for grownups are of very uneven quality. There are very well equipped institutions in fashionable parts of the cities (such as the Aga Khan University’s English Language Unit) and there are small, dark-looking rooms in congested localities of the bazaar advertising themselves as institutions for teaching spoken English. Seeing the recent trend of Americanization, some institutions claim to teach ‘American English’. As far as the author could make out after visiting some of these institutions, they have the same kind of teachers as other institutions. These teachers speak and teach Pakistani English but, because of the low prestige of this variety of English or lack of awareness of their real practice, they either pretend or really believe that what they teach is either British or American English.

In this context it may be mentioned in passing that the officially prescribed variety of English in Pakistani institutions is still British standard English. However, at the higher level teachers are aware of the concept of varieties of English and refer to work on Pakistani English (Baumgardner, 1993 ; 1996; Rahman, 19990a) in lectures and conferences. Literary figures like Bapsi Sidhwa talk of the ‘Pakistanized turn of phrase or choice of native word’ (Sidhwa, 1996: 233) and, indeed, Sidhwa and Ghose as well as others have used Pakistani English with great creative power in their writings (Rahman, 1990b). Yet, the fact is that the well known academics and literary figures all have near-native command over English. They speak fluent English which, though not British in accent, is far removed from the Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi or Urdu pronunciation (of English) of ordinary, educated Pakistanis. Thus, no matter how much lip service these eminent people may pay to endonormativism and the possibility of accepting Pakistani English, in practice they are far above the ego-shattering disapproval which is the fate of those who actually use Pakistani English. Thus, in actual practice teachers of English try as much as possible to teach British Standard English, generally from outdated books, as far as they are able to do so.

11. Conclusion

To sum up, English is still a very popular subject at all levels. It is popular as a medium of instruction and as a skill which an enterprising, upwardly mobile young adult should possess. It is the most empowering language in Pakistan both because it gives privileged access to the most lucrative and powerful jobs within thecountry and abroad and because it gives social prestige to one who can speak it fluently and write it correctly. In this role, it empowers the elite and keeps this power within it. It is also the biggest hurdle in the way of the vernacular-educated student, especially one from rural areas, to positions of power. English is also a hurdle in the very process of getting higher education at all. The rate of failure in the matriculation, intermediate and B.A examinations is highest in English. Thus English remains a device to close the ranks of the elite in Pakistan. It gives power which is why people are so desperate to acquire it and also why they resent it so much. They resent it because they know that they are not placed in an advantageous position while their elitist counterparts are. English, therefore, serves to maintain the present power structure which disempowers most of our people.

However, besides bring a means to upward social mobility, English is also a window to other world views. These world views, being created in the West, are liberal–humanist and supportive of democratic values and human rights----especially the rights of women and ordinary, otherwise marginalized, working– class people. Becauseof this, exposure to English might mean greater exposure to and acceptance of liberal, democratic, egalitarian values. This might be an antidote to the increasing intolerance (especially of a religious nature which is often called ‘Talibanization’) in Pakistani society. Thus, English, which has been taught very well but only to a small elite so far should now be taught, pehaps less well, but to all students. It should be spread out far more evenly. This is only possible by eliminating privileged English-medium schools while promoting the teaching of English as a subject in all schools. While the language of employment in Pakistan need not be English, it should remain the language of research, university teaching at the highest level, aviation and international interaction. In short, instead of being almost a first language for a few Pakistanis, English should become the most commonly known foreign language for all Pakistanis. In this new role English will not remain a stumbling block in the way of the ordinary people of Pakistan. It might become the supporter of democratic values and tolerance in Pakistan.

Notes

1. The survey of 1500 students carried out by the present author is given in detail in Language, Ideology and Power being published by the Oxford Univeristy Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

2. Interview with Mr. Hasan Badruddin Khan, Principal Public School and College, Abbottabad, 04 July 1997. This is confirmed by interviewing, talking to and observing the behaviour of students in Burn Hall, Aitchison College, Cadet College Hasanabdal, Military College Jhelum and Lawrence College, Ghora Gali.

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3. Private Elitist Schools

10. English in the Institutions of Higher Education

English–Teaching Institutions in Pakistan