OUTLINE

MUSLIM LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN AND INDIA

The article covers the history of language education among the Muslims of India and Pakistan since medieval times. Besides giving a historical description of facts it connects language learning with empowerment (through employment) and identity-maintenance (both ethnic identity of which language is a symbol and socio-economic class identity of which prestigious languages are symbols). After a brief introduction, it is divided into the following sections.

1. The Teaching of the Classical Languages of Muslims

1.1 Persian

This sub section describes how Persian was taught and how its demand came from the fact that it was used in the domains of power---government, judiciary, education etc---till 1835-1837 when the British replaced it with English and the vernaculars. After that and till date Persian is learnt only by specialists, functionaries of the state or those who interact with Persian-speaking countries. It is also taken as an easy option by students. The medieval texts of Persian, some of which are taught in Islamic seminaries even now, are given separately in Box-2.

1.2 Arabic

Arabic the religious language of Muslims, was taught more widely in the pre-British period than it is now. This sub-section gives on account of this teaching giving special attention to how it functions as part of Islamic identity in Pakistan. The texts of Islamic seminaries as well as the new books for learning Arabic are separately given in Box-3 and 4.

1.3 Turkish

Only a short paragraph on the evidence that Mughal kings new Turkish which is now taught as a foreign language in Pakistan.

2. The teaching of the Modern Languages

Two modern languages, Urdu and English, are the focus of this section.

2.1 Urdu

The informal learning of Urdu during the pre-British period and the formal teaching of it since then in both India and Pakistan is discussed. Urdu is connected with identity in both countries and this too is mentioned.

2.2 English

The increase in the demand for learning English because it is a symbol of (upper) class identity is mentioned. The Pakistani state’s support of elitist English-medium institutions is illustrated through Box-5 giving expenditure per student per year by the state in all kinds of educational institutions.

3. Indigenous Language

Except for Urdu and Sindhi, the indigenous languages of the Muslims of Pakistan and India are generally not media of instruction. In India, However, if the state language happens to be a mother tongue, basic schooling is available in it. In Pakistan they are optional subjects or subjects of higher education. They do have popular reading material (chapbooks) in them and primers etc exist in some of them (Box-6) but government policy in Pakistan does not offer protection to them.

After this there is a brief conclusion pointing out how language learning is connected with five items in the references empowerment and identity.

References

The list of nearly twenty five items are for further reading. Some of the items do, however, refer to the material used for the preparation of this article. The article itself does not refer to specific sources.

Boxes

The six boxes referred to earlier are attached.

Box-1 The major languages Pakistani Muslims.

Box-2 Persian texts traditionally taught to Muslims.

Box-3 Arabic texts taught in the Islamic seminaries.

Box-4 New Arabic Books for learning Arabic.

Box-5 Cost per student per year in Pakistani educational institutions.

Box-6 Basic reading material in the languages of Pakistan.

The boxes are not counted in the final count of words which are 3000 plus (references included). The article has been through three drafts and it would not be possible to bring it down below 3000 words without compromising on quality. It would then mean leaving out very necessary information.

Tariq Rahman Ph.D

National Distinguished Professor

Of Linguistics and South Asian Studies

Quaid-i-Azam University

Islamabad

Pakistan